Tillage Crops Open Day

Exploiting genetic resistance in winter wheat

J.I. Burke, R. Hackett and P. Tiernan

In recent years, the introduction of new varieties has made a major contribution to increasing crop yields. In addition, breeders have successfully improved disease resistance over time, which can play a critical role in reducing fungicide costs once certain management strategies are adopted that exploit this aspect. At this year's Open Day a range of varieties are on display, all of which have received either full, reduced or no fungicide application. In past trials, the impact of varietal choice on fungicide response and margin over cost has been significant, with large varietal effects which, if exploited, can help to reduce disease control costs significantly.

In addition to the control of foliar diseases, fungicidal control of some root diseases, e.g. take-all, is now possible. Little information is available regarding varietal susceptibility to the effects of take-all and the response to seed treatment. Research at Oak Park is examining the effect of Latitude seed treatment on a range of varieties. Early results suggest that modern varieties vary in their response to seed treatment. In take-all prone sites, this attribute should be exploited.

• Trials examining the interaction between variety and fungicide level suggest that there is scope for reducing cost if certain guidelines are followed.
• This work, combined with work on decision support systems, should enable more judicious use of fungicides in winter wheat.
• Varieties vary in their response to seed treatment for the control of take-all.

Decision Support Systems for winter wheat

Whole-crop cereals to feed to ruminants

P. O'Kiely

Grange Research Centre

Whole-crop cereals have the potential to produce a high-yielding high-quality feedstuff. They can be harvested in a single cut and will produce a well preserved feedstuff without effluent production. Whole-crops can support good animal performance at a relatively attractive feed cost (particularly where the crop is eligible for EU Area Aid). It is possible to harvest all cereals as whole-crop using a precision-chop harvester.

Research to-date within Teagasc has shown that whole-crop cereals:

• need to be produced from high-yielding, high-quality crops.
• are relatively easy to preserve and should not produce effluent.
• can support superior growth rates in finishing cattle compared to good quality grass silage when the ratio of grain : straw is high.
• should not be harvested until the cereal has progressed to the cheesy stage (>35% DM).
• have a relatively wide `harvest window', with different conservation techniques being appropriate at various stages of crop development.
• are not necessarily more unstable at feedout than many grass silages, provided excellent management practices are used.

Hybrid winter barley

J.I. Burke and P. Tiernan

Developments in winter barley hybridising technology have resulted in a new hybrid barley variety being developed with the potential for higher yield and quality. The most recent variety developed with new technology is on display at this year's Open Day. Normally barley is self-pollinated. Commercial hybrid seed derives from a controlled cross pollination of parent lines which is achieved by preventing one parent from fertilising itself. In the case of the new winter barley bred by New Farm Crops, a technique called cytoplasmic male sterility was used similar to that employed on a range of crops such as sugar beet and maize. Some parental combinations exhibit hybrid vigour. This vigour is expressed in the hybrid and is lost if the hybrid seed is propagated, i.e. the hybrid does not breed true, as is the case for conventional inbred varieties.

It is claimed that hybrid barley offers a number of potential advantages in terms of higher yields, but until this year's trials are harvested at Oak Park, it is not possible to say if it will outyield conventional varieties by the claimed 12-15%. The new variety on trial would, if successful, have to be carefully managed, particularly in terms of seeding rate, nitrogen, growth regulation and disease control. It is essential that these components are investigated if this concept is to be exploited at farm level.

• May offer superior yield potential.
• Careful management required.

New fungicides in winter wheat

B. Dunne

Two new strobilurin fungicides, picoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin are available in 2002. Picoxystrobin is sold as Acanto, while pyraclostrobin is a component of three fungicide products, i.e as a straight product (Modem), and in mixtures with epoxiconazole (Opera) and with epoxiconazle and kresoxim-methyl (Covershield).

These strobilurins have both eradicant and preventative action. The earlier strobilurins, azoxystrobin, kresoxim-methyl and trifloxystrobin have preventative activity only.

They are active against a wide range of cereal diseases, especially net blotch and rhynchosporium in barley and septoria and rust in wheat. Where powdery mildew is a problem they will need to be mixed with a mildewicide.

Because of their properties, there is potential for more flexibility in their application timing, especially on wheat, than with the existing fungicides. They are being used currently in three-spray programmes, but their eradicant properties may allow a longer time interval between spray applications. This may result in two-spray programmes being adequate for disease control in winter wheat.

• New strobilurin fungicides have eradicant properties.
• They may allow longer intervals between spray applications.
• Require mixing with other fungicides to extend the spectrum of control.

Perennial rye grass breeding

V. Connolly

Approximately 90% of the farmed land area in the country is devoted to grassland and is the primary resource for almost all of our agricultural output. While sward composition, especially for old pastures, is often complex, perennial ryegrass and white clover are the key components of the most productive pastures. Genetic improvement of these species by breeding varieties with superior yields and quality is a valuable contribution to increasing the potential productivity of our grasslands.

Breeding and selection of perennial ryegrass is done at two ploidy levels - diploid and tetraploid. The principal objectives are:

• Increased total annual yield
• Improved seasonal yield in spring and autumn
• Increased persistency
• Improved sward density
• Reduced stem in the aftermath regrowth
• Improved quality
• Improved disease resistance (mildew, drechslera, leaf spot, rust, rhyncosporium, leaf spot)

Achievements: The following varieties have been released and are included in Recommended Lists in Ireland and elsewhere.

Intermediate: MAGICIAN

GREENGOLD

CASHEL

Late: MILLENNIUM

SARSFIELD

White clover breeding

V. Connolly

It is estimated that 80% of the milk and 60% of beef production comes from grazed grass/clover pastures. White clover is a key component of high quality productive pastures. Varieties that are persistent, high yielding and adapted to a range of managements are required to underpin the exploitation of good grass/clover production systems. Benefits include: increased biological nitrogen fixation; increased quality/intake of the grazed grass/clover sward; reduced dependence on inorganic N₂ fertilizer; and reduced costs.

The principal objectives of the programme are:

• Increased persistency, especially in the medium and large leaf size categories
• Increased yield, both seasonal and annual
• Improved stolon density (medium and large leaf types)
• Improved disease/pest resistance
• Good seed production potential

Achievements: The following varieties have been released and are included in the Recommended Lists in Ireland and elsewhere.

ARAN

AVOCA

SUSI

TARA

CHIEFTAIN

Fungicide strategies for spring barley

R. Hackett, J. I. Burke and P. Prior

Fungicides are an important input for spring barley production in Ireland. Correct choice of product and rate, combined with timely application, are crucial to the success of fungicide programmes. These decisions have been complicated in recent years with the occurrence of the barley spotting disorder. Excess spending on fungicides cannot be justified. The most cost effective method of reducing fungicide requirement is to use resistant varieties. Sowing susceptible varieties in high disease locations should be avoided. Research at Oak Park has shown that a two-spray fungicide programme gives good disease control, good yield responses and the greatest margins. The first spray should be applied at G.S. 30/31 and should consist of a reduced rate triazole (+/- mildewicide). There has been generally no benefit achieved by using strobilurin fungicides in the first spray. The second spray should be applied at flag leaf. This is the most important spray in terms of yield response in spring barley and, therefore, the fungicide spend should be concentrated at this timing. This spray should consist of a strobilurin-based product. Strobilurins applied at this time will give good disease control, as well reducing the severity of necrotic spotting.

• Use resistant varieties in high disease situations.
• A two-spray fungicide strategy is best.
• Apply triazole (+/-mildewicide) at G.S. 30/31 and a strobilurin (+/- triazole) at flag leaf.
• Focus spend on flag leaf spray.

Potato breeding

L. Dowley

The aim of the Potato Breeding Programme is to produce higher yielding, disease resistant varieties for the home ware trade and the seed export market. Twenty-five new varieties have been released to-date and 30,000 tonnes of seed of Oak Park varieties are sold annually in some 10 different countries.

On the home market, Rooster is a high yielding, tuber blight resistant maincrop variety with red skin. Because of its superior quality and its suitability for washing and processing, Rooster is now the No. 1 variety grown in Ireland.

Colleen is a very early maturing variety with excellent quality and is rapidly gaining popularity on the Irish Market.

On the seed export market the particoloured, late-maincrop variety Cara is a very high yielder with good appearance and disease resistance. This variety has reached over 10% of the UK market and is also very popular in the Mediterranean area. Other important export varieties are Burren, Slaney, Ambo, Anna, Red Cara, Druid, Malin, Avondale, Shannon, Tulla and Barna.

• Rooster the No. 1 maincrop variety in Ireland.
• Cara has reached 10% of UK potato area.
• Colleen is a good quality early variety for Ireland.
• Many new varieties in the pipeline.

Potato blight

L. Dowley

Late blight is the most important disease affecting the potato crop in Ireland and as such attracts the greatest research input. Problems include fungicide resistance, mating-type, aggressiveness, epidemiology and reducing fungicide use.

The efficacy of all systemic, translaminar and protectant fungicides has been established. New fungicides such as propamocarb, dimethomorph and fluazinam were shown to give good foliage and tuber blight protection. An anti-resistance strategy for the use of phenylamide based fungicides has been developed and is currently being used by potato producers world-wide. Despite the existence of phenylamide resistant strains of Phytophthora infestans, the phenylamide fungicides still give good results if used in conjunction with the anti-resistance strategy.

The distribution of the A2 mating type as well as changes in pathogen agressiveness are being monitored. Results suggest that there is no cause for alarm to-date.

Research on Decision Support Systems (DSS) confirms that it is possible to reduce fungicide inputs by over 40%, without loss of disease control, by the use of the NegFry DSS. Fluazinam has given better results with decision support systems than mancozeb.

• Phenylamides still give good results when used with anti-resistance strategy.
• Decision support systems can reduce fungicide used by >40%.

Tillage Technology and Business Service

J. O'Mahony

The TBS tillage service is delivered by 23 specialised tillage advisers supported by three regional specialists and backed by research from Oak Park. Advice will promote the best technology but will also place a major emphasis on financial business management. We will promote environmentally sustainable farming through best husbandry practices.

Key elements of the TBS will be:-

• The establishment of 16 monitor farms in the main tillage counties. Monitor Farms demonstrate proven research at farm level, while facilitating collection of key business and technical details.
• Short Adult Training courses on both financial business management and technical tillage topics. Modules will be of 12.5 hours duration or multiples of this.
• The Teagasc client web site (http://www.client.teagasc.ie) allows clients to access customised information, such as crop reports, market developments and technical information. It also provides interactive analysis online.
• Discussion groups are working very well. We aim to increase the number of groups to at least 30.
• Farm visits, seminars and farm walks will continue.

Disease control in winter barley

E. O'Sullivan, B. Dunne and R. Hackett

Cultivar resistance and fungicide programmes are being exploited to control disease in winter barley. A number of different cultivars are being used in combination with high and low rates of fungicides.

Various fungicide programmes are being examined for disease control in winter barley on cv. Regina. To-date, Ramularia leaf spot is the main disease occurring. This is a relatively new disease, having been first identified at Oak Park in 1999. It overwinters on winter barley, moves up the crop in April/May and produces inoculum, which spreads infection to spring-sown barley crops. The disease has become particularly severe on winter barley crops in recent weeks. A higher than usual level of infection was found during the past winter and this, together with the recent wet weather, probably accounts for the severity of the epidemic. In fungicide control programmes, products containing epoxiconazole are giving best results.

At Oak Park,

• Ramularia leaf spot is the main disease occurring on winter barley.
• It carries over on winter barley crops and spreads infection to spring crops.
• It is more severe than previously on winter barley this season.
• Products containing epoxiconazole are giving best control.

Nutrition of sugar beet

M. Herlihy

Johnstown Castle Research Centre

Environmental background: Recent European and national directives require that fertiliser-inputs of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) should be consistent with environmental quality. As a result, REPS and, more recently, cross compliance have been introduced to link minimum standards for environmental protection with payments at farm level. These measures eventually affect decisions on N and P inputs for sugar beet. For example, any proposed action programme for implementation of the Nitrate Directive may control inputs of P, as well as N, to address eutrophication of water bodies.

Teagasc advice: It is expected that any resulting statutory code of good practice will adopt Teagasc advice for N and P. In addition, growers should be aware of the need to control practices that result in excessive end-of-season nitrate levels and also the grazing of beet tops on free-draining soils in vulnerable areas.

• Teagasc advice aims to optimise fertiliser inputs, which maximises gross margin.
• It is accepted that optimum inputs also enhance environmental sustainability.
• Ongoing development ensures that optimum N reflects the progressively longer durations in continuous tillage - it does not limit justifiably higher inputs for soils or rotations of low fertility.

Weed beet investigations

B. Mitchell and K. Murphy

Weed beet is identical to sugar beet in the seedling stage but differs in that it flowers early in July and produces seed without forming a harvestable root. This weed can develop as seed shed from sugar beet bolters or from old groundkeepers growing in other crops in the rotation, or from contaminated sugar beet seed, although this latter is unlikely, as most commercial seed is now closely checked for all types of contaminants.

Weed beet now occurs in about 12% of fields in which sugar beet is grown and is beginning to create a serious problem in some areas. In some of these fields, sugar beet cannot be grown within the normal three-year cycle and this creates serious rotation problems for the growers. Weed beet is a strong competitor for nutrients and moisture and infestations as low as one plant per square metre can result in a 12% reduction in crop yield. Weed beet is also a prolific seeder and produces 1,500 seeds per plant, most of which remain viable in the soil for up to 20 years. As it is similar to normal beet it cannot be controlled by any of the standard sugar beet herbicides. Therefore, avoidance of infestation is essential and, where infestation has occurred, effective control methods must be developed.

Project objectives:

• Assess weed beet seed viability under different cultivation regimes.
• Record the rate of weed beet seed decline over a two- to three-year period.
• Assess the effect of various treatments on weed beet in cereal crops.

Slugs/leatherjackets in sugar beet

T. Kennedy

Slug and leatherjacket infestations can kill significant numbers of seedling beet plants. In trials in the current season (2002), these pests have reduced plant numbers by almost 80%.

Control of slugs and leatherjackets is presently achieved by applying methiocarb molluscicide to the crop as either a band treatment at the time of sowing or broadcast post-sowing.

While methiocarb is effective against slugs and leatherjackets, it also causes some mortality among non-target species. Because of this undesirable effect, various treatments are being investigated in order to obtain an alternative to methiocarb.

Four molluscicides, two insecticides and an insecticide seed treatment are presently being investigated. Other studies are examining the effect of surface applied methiocarb on non-target species (beetles and earthworms). The forecasting of leatherjacket populations for the purpose of advising beet growers of the likely risk of attack by these pests during the vulnerable period of crop growth is also underway.

Preliminary results indicate:

• There is an alternative to methiocarb.
• Seed treatment gives reasonable control.
• Method of cultivation greatly affects leatherjacket survival/mortality.

Machinery and labour

D. Forristal

Machinery accounts for approximately 40% of crop production costs. In addition, machinery determines the labour required for crop production. With increased pressure on margins, there is a need to reduce production costs. Methods of reducing labour must also be investigated to facilitate larger scale production and part-time farming.

Previous research has highlighted the need to adopt appropriate mechanisation policies for individual farms. In particular, the need to pursue the benefits of scale, to remain competitive, was highlighted.

Reduced cultivation systems, which establish crops with less intensive cultivation, offer scope for machinery and labour cost reduction. The potential cost and labour benefits of reduced cultivation are being examined. This research involves: 1) a study of work rates and labour requirements; 2) an assessment of machinery costs; and 3) an examination of the appropriateness of high output systems for our farm structure.

• Reduced cultivation systems have a lower specific energy input and can reduce establishment costs by 30-45%.
• Labour requirement can also be reduced (20-50%) but the pattern of labour demand is different.
• The effects on timeliness and the reliability of crop establishment are yet to be established.

Reduced cultivations for cereals

T. Fortune

Tillage farmers are under severe pressure on several fronts - product price, quality and traceability, competition from outside the EU, environmental restrictions etc. There is a need to minimise costs. It is difficult to make further savings in agrochemical inputs without affecting crop yields, but it may be possible to cut establishment costs by using reduced cultivation techniques.

Apart from economic reasons, there are also likely to be agronomic, soil related and environmental consequences from a change to shallow non-inversion tillage. All of the benefits are unlikely to occur on all soils; on some soils ploughing will continue to be the basis for growing good crops. Benefits claimed for reduced cultivations include: better soil conditions; more stable soil structure and resistance to compaction; more earthworms and soil faunal activity; less nutrient loss; and reduced greenhouse gas emissions etc. The main difficulties are likely to occur on unstable soils (e.g. silts), on poorly drained areas, and with root crops.

The main objectives of these experiments are to assess:

• Crop performance - establishment, pest and disease incidence, yield and quality.
• Changes in weed flora and control measures required.
• Alterations in soil structure and fertility, and nutrient losses.
• Variations in soil fauna and soil biomass.

Cereal production systems

M. Conry and J. Hogan

The overall objective of the Cereal Production Systems Experiment is to examine the effect of a reduced inputs system on:

1. Grain yield
2. Grain quality
3. Profitability to the grower
4. Unit production costs
5. Environment - flora and fauna

The principal cereal crops (winter wheat, barley and oats, and spring barley) were grown in three different rotations under:

1. A conventional (high) inputs system
2. A reduced (low) inputs system

In the low inputs system, N was reduced by 25%, P was reduced by 100% and pesticides were reduced by 50%.

Results over the last six years (1996-2001) show that:

• The low inputs system gave the lowest grain yields, but
• The low inputs system gave higher gross margins for the winter cereals (wheat, oats and barley).
• The conventional high inputs system gave the greatest yields and higher gross margins in the case of spring malting barley.
• Unit production costs were reduced by €12.5/tonne under the reduced inputs system.

Winter wheat sowing date and seeding rate

J.I. Burke

In recent years, interest in September sowing of winter wheat has increased. This is a concept which can work well provided soil conditions are suitable and appropriate varieties are chosen.

Varietal choice is one of the crucial factors in ensuring success. Varieties sown early will develop much quicker and pass through the various developmental stages rapidly. Apart from creating huge problems in terms of spring management and the timing of many crop inputs, grain sites can also be greatly reduced by adverse spring weather. If sowing before September 25^th, the only varieties that can be considered are Claire, Madrigal, Buchan and Marshal. If sowing in the last week of September, then Equinox and Savannah can be added to the list.

In addition to varietal choice, choosing an appropriate seeding rate is important. Data from 2001 trials (cv. Claire) confirm that the response to seeding rates above 200 seeds/m² was small. Reducing seeding rates too low (below 95 kg/ha) is also risky. It is essential to choose wisely based on a number of factors, including variety, seed bed conditions, sowing date and history of pest attack. It is also important to concentrate on the number of seeds sown rather than weight.

• Early sowing needs careful choice of variety.
• Early sowing necessitates low seeding rates.
• Adjust seeding rate according to sowing date.
• Match TWG and plants/m² to calculate final seed rate.

Spring lupins

J. Crowley

With the increasing use of high dry matter low protein forages like maize and whole crop cereals the demand for a traceable source of good quality protein is increasing. The high price of soya is also a major factor in the search for alternative sources.

Lupins are a rich source of plant protein (30-40%) second only to soya-beans in protein content with a good balance of amino acids. Lupins can be used as a direct replacement for soya in rations. Three species, White, Blue and Yellow, are available for spring sowing. Of these both the Blue and Yellow types are looking promising. White lupin varieties, although high yielding, ripen too late for use in Ireland.

Spring lupins can be sown from late Match to late April and harvested from mid- to late-August using standard cereal drills and harvesters. Being a legume the crop is eligible for the same Area Aid as peas and beans, €440/ha (€178/ac).

• Blue lupins yields range from 3.75 to 4.5 t/ha with protein content of 30%.
• Yellow lupin yields range from 2.5 to 3.25 t/ha with a protein content of 40%.
• Spring lupins can be safely sown from late March to late April.
• Seed rates range from 100 to 150 kg/ha depending on variety type.
• Lupins can be safely fed to ruminants but alkaloid levels should be checked before feeding to horses or mono-gastrics.

Maize

J. Crowley

Over the last ten years maize has developed from a minority crop to become a very significant feature on many livestock farms. At around 20,000 ha (50,000 ac) it is now the third largest crop in the country after cereals and sugar beet. The expanding demand for maize silage offers the tillage farmer the opportunity to include a new profitable break crop into the rotation.

Growing maize under plastic film is one way of significantly increasing both the total dry matter yield and quality of the maize crop.

The Punch Plastic system has, on average, increased dry matter yields by 4.2 t/ha (1.7 t/ac) - the larger increase coming in poor production years or in crops sown late, that would not reach maturity. Maturity date is also significantly improved.

Biotechnology

D. Milbourne and E. Guiney

A new programme of research in Plant Molecular Biology/Biotechnology has begun at Oak Park.

Research will focus on using molecular technologies to enhance the productivity, quality and safety of the major crops used for food and animal feed. We will employ enabling technologies, such as gene mapping, gene markers and transformation, to enhance the ongoing Teagasc programmes in plant breeding, disease, pest and weed control. Priority will be given to improving the productivity of perennial ryegrass, disease and pest resistance in potatoes, diagnosis of diseases and pests and determining the agronomic performance of genetically modified crops and their possible impact on the environment. The research areas are:

• GM risk assessment: assessment of impact of genetically modified crops on the environment.
• Marker assisted selection: using genetic fingerprinting technology to increase the efficiency of plant breeding.
• Gene expression: increase our understanding of the way genes function in influencing important characteristics of plants.
• Diagnostics: new molecular techniques for major crop diseases will allow for accurate identification of latent infection and be an integral part of future decision support systems.

Gene flow

M. L. Flannery

Research, to-date, with GM crops has concentrated on establishing cropping practices to optimise their potential, while avoiding any environmental effects. One environmental aspect being studied is the risk of gene flow. This is particularly relevant with crops such as oilseed rape (OSR). This project aims to quantify pollen drift to allow the potential risks of gene flow in OSR to be ascertained.

Passive trapping is being used to measure the extent of wind blown OSR pollen. Seed set in male sterile plants located beside each passive trap will be examined. Seed produced will be analysed to determine parentage. A Burkard spore trap is also being used to measure pollen flux and data produced will be compared with passive trap data. Pollen dispersal by insects, such as bees, is also being estimated by collecting pollen pellets from beehives.

A protocol for DNA extraction from pollen has been developed and refined. Molecular markers, including restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of PCR products (PCR-RFLP), microsatellites (SSRs), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLPs) and DNA sequencing are being used to differentiate OSR from its wild relatives.

• The likely impact of GM crops on the environment is being assessed.
• A base line study of native plant species and their spatial location is being undertaken.
• The ecological/biodiversity consequences of gene transfer are being studied.

Rape-seed oil as vehicle fuel

B. Rice

It is well known that vegetable oils can be used as fuels for diesel engines. Their main problems are a higher viscosity and vaporisation temperature, which could lead to pumping, atomisation and combustion difficulties. These problems may be overcome in two ways:

1. Convert the oil to biodiesel: This use is widely accepted and supported by the vehicle industry. EU production is over 0.5Mt/yr and increasing rapidly. Efficient production requires a big scale of operation.
2. Use unprocessed oil, modify the engine: This use is now developing rapidly in Germany, where several thousand engine conversion kits have been installed. It is suited to small-scale operation, but is not yet supported by the vehicle industry. Modifications include fuel pre-heating, extra filters, increased injection pressures and alternative nozzles.

Neither option is viable in Ireland without a reduction of road excise on biofuels. The UK has just introduced a 33 cents/litre remission on biodiesel. Many other EU states have similar measures. The EU is now considering proposals to oblige member states to achieve target substitution rates of mineral fuels by their equivalent biofuels. The targets proposed begin with 2% by December 2005, extending to 5.75% by 2010.

• Vegetable oils make good fuels.
• Some support is needed to make them viable.

Mycotoxins in cereal grains

A. Fröhlich

The quality of cereal grain can be adversely affected by the presence of moulds. Mycotoxins produced by moulds are injurious to animal health, and at low levels they can be antinutritional factors. Maximum permitted levels of mycotoxins in animal feed will be regulated by EU directives.

Two types of mycotoxins can occur in cereal grain, field mycotoxins and storage mycotoxins. Field mycotoxins are produced by Fusarium spp., which infects heads during flowering. Storage mycotoxins are produced by Penicillium which can infect grain stored at high moisture. The most common storage mycotoxins are aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, although the former occurs very rarely in home grown cereals.

A three-year study of field mycotoxins in Irish cereals found contamination in only one year. Fungicides active against Fusarium spp. became available recently and offer some scope for control. Preliminary work on storage mycotoxins indicated that grain dried before storage seems to be free from ochratoxin A contamination. However, some samples taken from grain stored above 20% moisture content showed ochratoxin contamination.

• Field mycotoxins can occur in cereal grain when weather conditions are suitable for the growth of Fusarium spp.
• Newer fungicides offer some scope for control of Fusarium spp.
• Storage mycotoxins can occur in cereal grain when stored at moistures above 20%.